tense | voice | aspect | ||||
Simple | perfect | progressive | perfect progressive | |||
finite verb | present | active | do | have done | is doing | have been doing |
passive | is done | have been done | is being done | have been being done | ||
past | active | did | had done | was doing | had been doing | |
passive | was done | had been done | was being done | had been being done | ||
future | active | will do | will have done | will be doing | will have been doing | |
passive | will be done | will have been done | will be being done | will have been being done | ||
infinitive verb | I.P (to do) | active | to do | to have done | to be doing | to have been doing |
passive | to be done | to have been done | to be being done | to have been being done | ||
G.P (doing): | active | - | - | doing | having done | |
passive | - | - | being done | having been done |
"there is" can be dropped | there is no change -> no change there is no choice -> no choice |
"I" can be dropped | I thank you -> thank you |
"I am" can be dropped | I am thinking. Don't disturb -> Thinking. Don't disturb |
"to be" can be dropped | Smoking is not allowed -> Smoking not allowed | "that is" can be dropped | That is sweet of you -> Sweet of you |
"it is" can be dropped | It is nice to meet you -> Nice to meet you |
"are" in questions can be dropped | Are you OK? -> You OK? |
"do you" in questions can be dropped | Do you understand? -> understand? |
"did you" in questions can be dropped | Did you get it? -> got it? |
"the" at the front of a sentence and "that" in questions can be dropped | The point is that money is not everything -> point is money is not everything |
Linker | Coordinating Conjunctions (COO) | Conjunctive Adverbs (CON) or Connectors | Subordinating Conjunctions (INT) or Adverbial Introducers | Prepositional Phrases(Prep) | |
Function | Addition (Ordering) | And, Nor | In addition, Additionally, Next, Then, Furthermore, Moreover, Also, Finally, Lastly, Subsequently, Afterward, Later, Meanwhile, Simultaneously, First, Second, First and foremost, To began with, For starter, Above all, Above all else, Last but not least, Not only that, Besides, Now, Continuing, Further | In addition to the fact that …, With | In addition to, Beside |
Result/effect | So (rather informal) | as a result, therefore, thus, hence, in conclusion, | So that, So, So as that | - | |
Cause and Effect | For | Therefore, As a result, Consequently, As a consequence, Hence, Thus, Conclusively, In conclusion, Inevitably | Because, Since, As, Given that, Inasmuch as, Due to the fact that, Thereby, Once | Because of, As a result of, Due to, Leading to, Owing to | |
Clarification | - | In other words, That is, That is to say, Namely, To be more precise, More specifically, To sum up | - | - | |
Exemplification | - | For example, For instance, For another example, As an example, By way of illustration, As illustrated by, As shown by, As exemplified by, As shown by, As exemplified by | Exemplified by, Illustrated by, Shown by, Be it | Like, Such as, e.g., As is | |
Generalization | - | As a general rule, On the whole, Overall, in general, All together, All in all, In all, Generally, Generally speaking, In a broader context, In a broader perspective | - | - | |
Summary | - | In summary, In brief, in short, In a word, In simple terms, Briefly | - | - | |
Contrast in expectation | But, Yet | However, Nevertheless, Yet, Still, On the contrary, Unfortunately, Originally, Surprisingly, Ideally, Apparently | Although, Even though, Though, Despite the fact, But | Despite, Despite of, In spite of | |
Contrast in comparison | - | On the other hand, In contrast, Conversely, By contrast, By way of contrast, By comparison | While, Whereas | Unlike | |
Contrast in action | - | Instead | - | Instead of | |
Choice | Or | Alternatively, Equally, Similarly, In almost the same way, In a similar way, Along the same lines, On the same lines, On similar lines, Likewise, Otherwise, Or, Or else | - | - | |
Emphasis | - | In fact, Indeed, As a matter of fact, That is, Essentially, Interestingly, Fortunately, Inevitably | - | - | |
Main reason | - | Primarily, Most important | - | - | |
Confirmation | - | Typically, Usually, Traditionally, Normally, Naturally, Clearly | In accordance with, Confirms | - | |
Specialization | - | In particular, Particularly, Specifically | - | - | |
Continuation of explanation | - | In this context, In this connection, In this respect, In this perspective, Here | With | - | |
Without condition | - | Regardless, Despite | Even though | - | |
Qualification | - | At least | - | - | |
Reintroduction | - | Regarding, For, In connection with, Focusing on, With respect to | - | - | |
Punctuation | XXXX, COO XXXX. | XXXX; CON, YYYY. XXXX. CON, YYYY. XXXX; Y, CON, YYY. XXXX. Y, CON, YYY. XXXX; YYYY, CON. XXXX. YYYY, CON. | INT XXXX, YYYY. YYYY INT XXXX. | Prep X, YYYY. | |
Example | It provides the best DC output, but the common point doesn't have DC. | The brakes do not work; therefore, the car is unsafe to drive. The brakes do not work. Therefore, the car is unsafe to drive. The brakes do not work; The car, therefore, is unsafe to drive. The brakes do not work; The car is unsafe to drive, therefore. | Since it is raining, we didn't go swimming. We didn't go swimming since it is raining. | Due to our late arrival at the lecture, we had to wait in the hall. |
Bilabial | /m/ | [sum /sʌm/] | |
/b/ | [back /bæk/] | ||
/p/ | [pen /pen] | ||
/w/ | [wet /wet/]-[one /wʌn/] | Lips rounded | |
[quick /kwɪk/]-[twice /twaɪs/] | |||
Labia Dental | /f/ | [fat /fæt/] | Push more air |
/v/ | [view /vju:/] | Push more air | |
Dental | /θ/ | [thing /θɪᶇ/]-[thank /θæᶇk/] | |
/ð/ | [then /ðen/]-[bathe /beɪð/] | ||
Alveolar | /n/ | [sun /sʌn/] | tongue tip to teeth |
/l/ | [let /let/]-[kill us /kɪləs/] | Clear L: Before vowels | |
[feel /fi:l/]-[world /wɜ:rld/] | Dark L: Elsewhere | ||
/r/ | [red /red/] | tongue curved | |
/s/ | [soon] | ||
/z/ | [zero] | ||
/t/ | [tip /tɪp/] | tongue tip to teeth | |
/d/ | [dip /dɪp/] | tongue tip to teeth | |
Palatal | /ʃ/ | [ship /ʃɪp/] | |
/ʒ/ | [pleasure /'pleʒər/] | ||
/tʃ/ | [cheer /tʃɪr/] | ||
/dʒ/ | [jump] | ||
/j/ | [yet] | ||
Velar | /k/ | [key /ki:/] | End of tongue |
/g/ | [get /get/]-[finger /'fɪᶇgər/] | ||
/ᶇ/ | [thank /Tæᶇk/] | Before K | |
[sung /sʌᶇ/] | Before G | ||
Glottal | /h/ | [hot /hɑ:t/] |
Short | /ɪ/ | [bit /bɪt/] | |
/e/ | [bed /bed/] | Open mouth down | |
/æ/ | [cat /kæt/] | Open mouth | |
/ʌ/ | [but /bʌt/] | ||
/ʊ/ | [put /pʊt/] | ||
/ə/ | [color /cʌlər/] | Inside weak syllable: small e | |
[gala /geɪlə/] | Last Sound: medium a | ||
[about /ə'baʊt/] [accept /ək'sept//æk'sept/] | The first sound: fast a, also sometimes pronounced æ | ||
[Japan /dʒə'pɑn/] | Before strong syllable: delete | ||
/i/ | [happy /'hæpi/] | ||
Long | /i:/ | [sheep /ʃi:p/] | |
/ɑ:/ | [father /'fɑ:ðər/] | Open mouth | |
/ɔ:/ | [four /fɔ:r/] | Before r: lips fully rounded | |
[law /lɔ:/] | Elsewhere: /ɑ:/ | ||
/u:/ | [boot /bu:t/] | Lips fully rounded | |
/ɜ:/ | [bird] | Jew fronted | |
Diphthongs | /eɪ/ | [make /meɪk/] | |
/aɪ/ | [lie /laɪ/] | ||
/ɔɪ/ | [boy /bɔɪ/] | ||
/oʊ/ | [note /noʊt/] | ||
/aʊ/ | [now /naʊ/] | ||
/ɪə/ | [real /rɪəl/] | ||
/uə/ | [actual /'æktʃuəl/] | ||
/iə/ | [peculiar /pɪ'kju:liər/] |
(V+,V-): (/b/,/p/)(/v/,/f/)(/ð/,/T/)(/z/,/s/)(/dʒ/,/tʃ/)(/g/,/k/)(/d/,/t/)(/ʒ/,/ʃ/) | |||
/i:/ /u:/ /æ/ /ɔ:/: Longer before V+ |
Function words | These word have one strong pronunciation and one weak pronunciation: | at /æt/, /ət/. for /fɔ:r/, /fər/ and /ænd/, /ən/ |
Pronounced strongly if emphasized or if coming at the end of the sentence: | look "at" not "to" /æt/ What are you looking at? /æt/ | |
Pronounced weakly in other contexts: | Look at me /lʊkət/ | |
Flapping /t&d/ | between two vowels | better /beʇər/ additive /æʇəʇv/. |
between a vowel and a dark /l/ | battle /bæʇl/ kettle /keʇl/ seattle /si:æʇl/ | |
between /n/ and a vowel | internet /ɪnʇərnet/ | |
Pronouncing contractions: | had, would -> 'd (/d/ after vowels; /əd/ after consonants) | He'd /hɪd/ Mike'd /maɪkəd/ |
have -> 've (/v/ after vowels; /əv/ after consonants) | I've /aɪv/ Children've /tʃɪldrənəv/ Kids've /kɪdzəv/ | |
will -> 'll (/l/ after vowels; /əl/ after consonants) | I'll /aɪl/ Mike'll /maɪkəl/ | |
are -> 're (/r/ after vowels; /ər/ after consonants) | we're /wər/ kids're /kɪdzər/ | |
not -> n't (/nt/ after vowels; /ənt/ after consonants) | can't /kænt/ couldn't /kʊdənt/ |
Unstressed /u&ɪ/ -> /ə/ | drastic// communisn// |
Bilabialization (before a bilabial sound /m,p,b/) | /t/ -> /p/: boatman, that person, light blue, meat ball /d/ -> /b/: good boy /n,p/ -> /m/: ten boy, happen |
Valorizations (before velar sound /k,g,&ɪcirc;/) | /n/ -> /&ɪcirc;/: ten goals, broken key /t/ -> /k/: that cat, bright color, quite good |
Palatalization (before palatal sound /ʃ,j/) | /s/ -> /ʃ/: this ship, this year /z/ -> /ʒ/: those shop, those year /d/ -> /dʒ/: would you /t/ -> /tʒ/: don't you |
Alveolarization (before alveolar sound /s/) | /t/ -> /s/: that side /d/ -> /n/: good night |
Devoicing (before v- sound) | /dʒ/ -> /tʃ/: Bridge Street /v/ -> /f/: of course |
Neutralization (word final position) | bad, bat cab, cap |
Nasalization | button /ba:tən/ -> /ba:tn/ mountain /maʊntən/ -> /maʊntn/ sentence /sentəns/ -> /sens/ |
/t&d/ When enclosed by other consonant (reduced consonant clusters) | postman, windscreen, landscape, aspects, acts, tests, scripts, last night, scientists I looked back /aɪ lʊkt bæk/ -> /aɪ lʊk bæk/ |
The first plosive in two adjacent plosives (/b/, /p/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/) | backgammon /bækgəmən/ -> /bægəmən/ I don't know /aɪ doʊnt noʊ/ -> /aɪ doʊ noʊ/ -> /aɪ də noʊ/ |
Initial /h,ð/ in pronouns like he, her, his, them, the ... | find her /faɪnd hər/ -> /faɪnd ər/ -> /faɪn ər/ I asked him /aɪ 'æskt hɪm/ -> /aɪ 'æst hɪm/ -> /aɪ 'æst ɪm/ -> /aɪ 'æst əm/ go after them /aftər ðəm/ -> /aftər əm/ look at the board /lʊk æt ðə bɔ:rd/ -> /lʊk ət ə bɔ:rd/ |
of /əv/ is pronounced /ə/ | I got lots of them /la:ts əv ðəm/ -> /la:ts ə ðəm/ waste of time /weɪst əv taɪm/ -> /weɪst ə taɪm/ |
/l/ before consonants | all right /a:l raɪt/ -> /a: raɪt/ I'll be right back /aɪl bi: raɪt/ -> /ə bi: raɪt/ |
Second component of the first diphthong in two adjacent diphthong | my mind /maɪ maɪnd/ -> /mə maɪnd/ |
grandpa /grændpə/ -> /grænpə/ -> /græmpə/ | |||
last year /læst j:r/ -> /læs jɜ:r/ -> /læʃ jɜ:r/ |
warmth /wɔ:rmT/ -> /wɔ:rmpT/ world /wɜ:rld/ -> /wɜ:rəld/ girl /gɜ:rl/ -> /gɜ:rəl/ dependence /dɪpendəns/ -> /dɪpenʇənts/ |
name + 'number | lesson 'ten, room 'eight, an 'egg | ||
number + 'name | six 'days, two 'hours | ||
'noun + noun | 'meatball, 'bus stop, 'drugstore | ||
'noun + noun + noun | 'payday check, a 'typewriter seller | ||
phrasal verbs = verb + 'particle | pick 'up, sit 'down, come 'in | ||
noun made from phrasal verbs | 'outbreak, 'downfall, 'printout, 'makeup | ||
noun phrase = adj + 'noun | a good 'way, a black 'bird, a blue 'bottle | ||
compound noun = 'adj + noun | a 'blackbird, a 'bluebottle | ||
'everywhere, 'everyone, 'everyday | |||
Titles | Mr. 'Jackson, Dr. 'Johnson | ||
first name + 'last name | Robert 'Lane | ||
prepositional phrase = preposition + 'noun | in 'English, a 'cup of 'tea, end of the 'road. | ||
two-word numbers | thirty-'four, two 'hundred | ||
idioms | once upon a 'time, to be 'honest, every now and 'then | ||
emphasis | I didn't 'mean it, why don't you 'try it? | ||
agent and patient adjectives when used alone | short 'lived, well 'paying | ||
English avoids two adjacent strong syllables | four'teen 'years -> fourteen 'years nine'teen 'ninety -> nineteen 'ninety short-'lived 'government -> short-lived 'government an after'noon 'class -> an afternoon 'class |
Drop final -e when the suffix begins with a vowel. Ex.: hoeing, canoeing. | typing, writing |
When adding "s", change a final "y" to "ie" if it comes after consonant. | cries |
Double the final consonant in CVC syllable if the accent falls on it after combination (C). | expelled, submitted, putting, but reference |
Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
re- | again or back | restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance |
dis- | reverses the meaning of the verb | disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue |
over- | too much | overbook, oversleep, overwork |
un- | reverses the meaning of the verb | unbend, uncouple, unfasten |
mis- | badly or wrongly | mislead, misinform, misidentify |
out- | more or better than others | outperform, outbid |
be- | make or cause | befriend, belittle |
co- | together | co-exist, co-operate, co-own |
de- | do the opposite of | devalue, deselect |
fore- | earlier, before | foreclose, foresee |
inter- | between | interact, intermix, interface |
pre- | before | pre-expose, prejudge, pretest |
sub- | under/below | subcontract, subdivide |
trans- | across, over | transform, transcribe, transplant |
under- | not enough | underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop |
Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
-ise | stabilize, character ise, symbol ise, visual ise, special ise | cause to be |
-ate | differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate | cause to be |
-(i)fy | classify, exemplify, simplify, justify | cause to be |
-en | awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten | cause to be |
Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
anti- | against | anticlimax, antidote, antithesis |
auto- | self | autobiography, automobile |
bi- | two | bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism |
co- | joint | co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant |
counter- | against | counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal |
dis- | the converse of | discomfort, dislike |
ex- | former | ex-chairman, ex-hunter |
hyper- | extreme | hyperinflation, hypersurface |
in- | the converse of | inattention, incoherence, incompatibility |
in- | inside | inpatient, |
inter- | between | interaction, inter-change, interference |
kilo- | thousand | kilobyte |
mal- | bad | malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition |
mega- | million | megabyte |
mis- | wrong | misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement |
mini- | small | mini-publication, mini-theory |
mono- | one | monosyllable, monograph, monogamy |
neo- | new | neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism |
out- | separate | outbuilding, |
poly- | many | polysyllable |
pseudo- | false | pseudo-expert |
re- | again | re-organisation, re-assessment, re-examination |
semi- | half | semicircle, semi-darkness |
sub- | below | subset, subdivision |
super- | more than, above | superset, superimposition, superpowers |
sur- | over and above | surtax |
tele- | distant | telecommunications, |
tri- | three | tripartism |
ultra- | beyond | ultrasound |
under- | below, too little | underpayment, under-development, undergraduate |
vice- | deputy | vice-president |
Suffix | Meaning | Examples |
-tion, -sion | action/instance of v.+ing | alteration, demonstration, expansion, inclusion, admission |
-er | person who v., something used for verb+ing | advertiser, driver, computer, silencer, |
-ment | action/instance of v.+ing | development, punishment, unemployment |
-ant, -ent | person who v. | assistant, consultant, student |
-age | action/result of v. | breakage, wastage, package |
-al | action/result of v. | denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal |
-ence, -ance | action/result of v. | preference, dependence, interference, attendance, acceptance, endurance |
-ery/-ry | action/instance of v.+ing, place of v.+ing | bribery, robbery, misery, refinery, bakery |
Suffix | Meaning | Examples |
-er | person concerned with N. | astronomer, geographer |
-ism | doctrine of N. | Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism |
-ship | state of being N. | friendship, citizenship, leadership |
-age | collection of N. | baggage, plumage |
Suffix | Meaning | Examples |
-ity | state or quality of being adj. | ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity |
-ness | state or quality of being adj. | darkness, preparedness, consciousness |
-cy | state or quality of being adj. | urgency, efficiency, frequency |
Suffix | Examples |
-al | central, political, national, optional, professional |
-ent | different, dependent, excellent |
-ive | attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive |
-ous | continuous, dangerous, famous |
-ful | beautiful, peaceful, careful |
-less | endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless |
-able, -ible | drinkable, countable, avoidable, accessible |
Suffix | Examples |
un- | unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust |
im-, in-, ir-, il- | immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal |
non- | non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral |
dis- | disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest |
Examples: adj. | uncomfortable, unavoidable, unimaginative, inactive, semi-circular |
Examples: N. | disappointment, misinformation, reformulation |
AC, ACR | sharp, sour |
AMBI, AMPHI | both |
AMBL, AMBUL | walk |
AUD | hear |
BENE, BEN | good |
BIO | life |
CARN | flesh |
CEDE, CESS | yield, go |
CO, COM, CON | with, together |
CURR, CURS | run |
DE | down, out, apart |
DEMO, DEM | people |
DUC, DUCT | lead |
EGO | self |
EN, EM | in, into |
EU | well, good |
FAL, FALS | deceive |
FORE | before |
FRAG, FRAC | break |
GRAPH, GRAM | writing |
GRAT | pleasing |
HELIO, HELI | sun |
HOL | whole |
INTRA, INTR | within |
JUD | judge |
LAT | side |
LING, LANG | tongue |
MACRO | great |
MAL | bad |
MEM, MIN | remember |
MIT, MISS | send |
NAU, NAV | ship, sailor |
NEO | new |
OB | against |
OMNI | all |
PAC | peace |
PHON | sound |
POT | drink |
QUAD, QUAR, QUAT | four |
QUIE | quiet |
RETRO | backward |
RID, RIS | laugh |
SED, SID | sit |
SEN | old |
SYN, SYM | together |
TACIT, TIC | silent |
TERM | end |